Sacbe, the Ancient Maya Road System

A sacbe (sometimes spelled zac be and pluralized as sacbeob or zac beob) is the Mayan word for the linear architectural features connecting communities throughout the Maya world. Sacbeob functioned as roads, walkways, causeways, property lines, and dikes. The word sacbe translates to stone road or white road but clearly sacbeob had layers of additional meanings to the Maya, as mythological routes, pilgrimage pathways, and concrete markers of political or symbolic connections between city centers. Some sacbeob are mythological, subterranean routes and some trace celestial pathways; evidence for these roadways are reported in Maya myths and colonial records. Finding the Sacbeob Identifying the routes of the sacbe on the ground has been extremely difficult until recently  when techniques such as radar imaging, remote sensing, and GIS became widely available. Of course,  Maya historians remain an important source of information for these ancient roadways. The issue is complex, ironically enough, because there are written records that contradict one another. Several of the sacbe have been identified archaeologically, many others are still unknown but have been reported in colonial period documents such as the Books of Chilam Balam. In my research for this article, I did not discover any explicit discussions on how old the sacbeob are  but based on the ages of the connecting cities, they were functioning at least as early as the Classic period (AD 250-900). Functions In addition to simply roadways that facilitated movement between places, researchers Folan and Hutson argue that sacbeob were visual representations of economic and political connections between centers and their satellites, conveying the concepts of power and inclusion. Causeways may have been used in processions that emphasized this idea of community. One function described in recent scholarly literature is the role of the sacbe road system in the Maya market network. The exchange system of the Maya kept the far-flung (and very loosely connected) communities in touch  and made it possible both to trade goods and make and sustain political connections. Market centers with central locations and associated causeways include Coba, Maax Na, Sayil, and Xunantunich. Deities and Sacbeob Maya deities associated with roadways include Ix Chel in several of her manifestations. One is Ix Zac Beeliz or she who walks the white road. In a mural at Tulum, Ix Chel is shown carrying two small images of the Chaac god as she is walking along a mythological or real roadway. The deity Chiribias (Ix Chebel Yax or the Virgin of Guadalupe) and her husband Itzam Na are sometimes associated with roads, and the legend of the Hero Twins includes a journey through the underworld along several sacbeob. From Cobà ¡ to Yaxuna The longest known sacbe is the one that stretches 100 kilometers (62 miles) between the Maya centers of Cobà ¡ and Yaxuna on the Yucatà ¡n Peninsula of Mexico, called the Yaxuna-Cobà ¡ causeway or Sacbe 1. Along Sacbe 1s east-west course are water holes (dzonot), steles with inscriptions and several small Maya communities. Its roadbed measures approximately 8 meters (26 feet) wide and typically 50 centimeters (20 inches) high, with various ramps and platforms alongside. Sacbe 1 was stumbled into by early twentieth century explorers, and rumors of the road became known to the Carnegie Institution archaeologists working at  Cobà ¡Ã‚  by the early 1930s. Its entire length was mapped by Alfonso Villa Rojas and Robert Redfield in the mid-1930s. Recent investigations by Loya Gonzalez and Stanton (2013) suggest that the sacbes main purpose may have been to connect Cobà ¡ to the large market centers of Yaxuna and, later,  Chichà ©n Itzà ¡, in order to better control trade throughout the peninsula. Other Sacbe Examples The Tzacauil sacbe is a solid rock causeway, which starts at the Late Preclassic acropolis of Tzacauil and ends just short of the large center of Yaxuna. Varying in width between 6 and 10 meters, and in height between 30 and 80 centimeters, this sacbes roadbed includes some crudely cut facing stones. From Cobà ¡ to Ixil, 20 kilometers in length, is a noh be followed and described in the 1970s by Jacinto May Hau, Nicolas Caamal Canche, Teoberto May Chimal, Lynda Florey Folan and William J. Folan. This 6-meter wide sacbe crosses a marshy area and includes numerous small and large ramps. Close to Coba was a fairly large platform next to a vaulted building, which the Maya guides referred to as a customs house or  way station. This road may have defined the boundaries of Cobas urban area and region of power. From Ich Caan Ziho through  Akà ©Ã‚  to Itzmal, is a sacbe approximately 60 km in length, of which only a portion is in evidence. Described by Ruben Maldonado Cardenas in the 1990s, a network of roads still used today leads from Ake to Itzmal. Sources Bolles D, and Folan WJ. 2001.  An analysis of roads listed in colonial dictionaries and their relevance to pre-hispanic linear features in the Yucatan peninsula.  Ancient Mesoamerica  12(02):299-314. Folan WJ, Hernandez AA, Kintz ER, Fletcher LA, Heredia RG, Hau JM, and Canche N. 2009.  Coba, Quintana Roo, Mexico: A Recent Analysis of the Social, Economic and Political Organization of a Major Maya Urban Center.  Ancient Mesoamerica  20(1):59-70. Hutson SR, Magnoni A, and Stanton TW. 2012.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"All that is solid†¦Ã¢â‚¬ : Sacbes, settlement, and semiotics at Tzacauil, Yucatan.  Ancient Mesoamerica  23(02):297-311. Loya Gonzà ¡lez T, and Stanton TW. 2013.  Impacts of politics on material culture: evaluating the Yaxuna-Coba sacbe.  Ancient Mesoamerica  24(1):25-42. Shaw LC. 2012.  The elusive Maya marketplace: An archaeological consideration of the evidence.  Journal of Archaeological Research  20:117-155.

Italy s Current Population Of Italy - 948 Words

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The Lord of the Flies Paper Essay Example For Students

The Lord of the Flies Paper Essay In The Lord of the Flies, Jack was a powerful representation of the evil instinct of all humankind and society due to his desire to have power and authority, his thrill for violence and bloodlust that evolved from his growing savagery, and his inability to control the evil instinct or darkness of a mans heart. From the beginning the novel, Jack was seen as a leader of his choir group. They were very well trained and obedient to him. It was obvious that he enjoyed the ability to have control over them. Every action taken by the group was commanded by him, even the smallest detail like moving around or taking off jackets. But when Ralph was chosen as the leader for the entire group, Jack was under a blush of mortification (23). As of that point on, Jack began to crave for power. Moreover, it wasnt merely a search for a dominant supremacy. Jacks envy for Ralph was the fodder that kept his fire blazing. Then as he began to build up that control over the boys by the blood of pigs, he needed to feel more and more of that power. After another victorious kill, he cries out, I gave you food, and my hunters will protect you from the beast. Who will join my tribe? (150). The accomplishment of feeding an entire group of boys with meat was a sufficient reason for him to now take over the whole group, which he eventually achieved. The violent, hostile, and menacing part of him also commenced to enlarge as a more intensified state that was almost incontrollable. From the actual moments of slaughter to the reenactment of the gruesome killings, and then to the chants and dances, Jack, above all, found thrill and excitement from each experience. The blood of the pigs on his own hands and body enlivened his emotions. Yet the first attempt at murdering the pig was unsuccessful because of the remaining bit of humanity in Jack. On account of that, Jack wanted to prove even more that he was able, and that he had the power to accomplish the deed. The butcheries after that incident though, were unmerciful and appalling. A certain, yet strange kind of exhilaration was derived from the horrific blood and the dissonant squeals of pain that even Ralph, the protagonist that represented order and civilization, too was fighting to get near, to get a handful of that brown, vulnerable flesh. The desire to squeeze and hurt was over-mastering, (115). So Jack soon becomes addicted to these high unexplainable emotions that ultimately take him to complete savagery. After being trapped inside the strict society of civilization in Britain, landing on the island was a chapter of revelation in Jacks life. The freedom from the proper and orderliness manner in which he grew up with, was too much for him to handle at such a young age. Instead of controlling the natural instinct that lied in all men, he revealed it to himself and to the others, and then allowed it to take over him, revealing the truth of how adverse and threatening human nature could be. Although the appearance of the evil nature takes a rightly negative outlook, to Jack, this was what he had been looking for. This state of immorality was all the freedom that he never had. Just a taste of it drove him deeper and deeper into the pit of darkness and had him conform into a finalized state of savagery. So from then on, Jack started to thrive on the blood, murders and power that came with sacrifices of humans, animals, and morality. Jack had no fault with his behavior. He himself did not realize the power that freedom had on him. Instead he merely looked at the exhilarations and thrills that it brought. Then he was led on by the desire for authority and violence, while being unable to control any of his inner instincts. All this shows society that the freedom Jack had was and is dangerous.

History Of Punk Rock Essay Example For Students

History Of Punk Rock Essay Did you know that the first commercially successful punk band was the Sex Pistols? Then came groups like Black Flag, Husker Du, and Bad Brains. Punk was invented in Britain in the mid Seventies. The first American punk started in a New York club called CBGBs. CBGBs would attract a crowd of about 500 with its Sunday-afternoon hard-core matinees. The concerts would be over by a reasonable time so kids could get home to eat dinner with their parents. In this paper we will take a look at some history and aspects of punk rock over the years. Slam Dancing Slam dancing has been popular through the history of punk. You may have heard of called mashing or stage diving. Mashing is just a big game of bumper cars like you played when you were a kid. I think Natalie Jacobson who is dating the lead singer of Murphys Law describes stage diving best when says, Its like diving into a human carpet. Something like the old kids trust game. Just my way of getting into it. Gospel people got their thing, I got mine.1 Politics Some punks consider themselves Nazis, or are concerned with issues like peace, racism, and nuclear war. Most punk is against parental, musical, and political authorities. On the other hand some isnt. Bob Mould of Husker Du talks about politics quite frequently in his songs. I dont write about politics because Im not an expert. Some bands find it very necessary to claim theyre politically relevant when in actuality they dont know shit about politics. Not informing people is much better than misinforming people. Were sort of like reporters in a way. Reporters of our own mental state. Reporters of the state of the air. Consciousness. Of the day. We make personal statements.2 Friends Most punks that live in small towns have trouble making friends. They find it hard to relate to most people. Sixteen- year-old Becca Levine finds it hard to make friends in her small town. She comes from a family of divorced parents that never have understood her. Her mother thinks its just a phase shes going through. As Becca Quotes, Parents around here treat me like Im kind of weird.3 She has met someone from New York City that understands her. She meets with him at concerts at clubs like the Ritz or CBGBs. She met someone else also. Someone about 20 minutes away from her hometown who wrote an ad in a national magazine looking for someone to associate with that would understand him. He got a lot of responses, but when he saw the letter from Becca he called her right up. They met for the first time at a Hard-Core show in New York City. But still no one in her hometown understands her. Fitting in with the New York hard-core scene is one of her goals. Clothing Punk has its very own unique style. Although punk sports hard edges, bright colors, shaved heads, leather jackets, Mohawks, and  army boots. You cant really tell if a person is a punk by the way they dress or do their hair. Wanda Draper, professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at the University of Oklahoma says, We need to look at their reactions and responses to what goes on around them in everyday life. When we know that this is a fad-that it is an effort to be a part of the group-we can usually relax.4 Development of Punk Through the years some punk has had influences from country to the Grateful Dead. Some of this may not even be punk at all. Take Rancids song Time Bomb off their latest album, And Out Come the Wolves5 for instance. It is their rendition of Reggae. Most punk groups dont make much money at all. Once in a while a punk group will hit it big time but that is very rare. .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b , .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .postImageUrl , .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b , .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b:hover , .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b:visited , .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b:active { border:0!important; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b:active , .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7d36021cb90639518006ef8dc7bd094b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: History of the Roman Empire EssayPaul Westerbert, lead singer of the Replacements quotes, We are the hungriest band Ive ever seen. We get in the van and drive to a town, play, stay at a friends house. Wake up when they throw us out. Drive the rest of the day. Play the next night. We get fifteen dollars a day. And when were home, we dont get nothing. Were way in debt. We own a van, it breaks down, and you know when you play that the gig money goes to pay for the broken- down van. Were used to it.6 Relation Punk is also related to Hard-Core and Ska. Hard-Core is usually heavier and more upbeat the regular punk. Ska is punk with some trumpets or saxophones playing along. Punk Is Still Going Strong Drugs, rock star egos, and in some cases death ruined the development of punk bands back around 1980 like the Sex Pistols, Black Flag, and The Germs. It made a recent comeback in the early nineties. Julia Sazbo quotes, Music lovers will argue that it all started in early 1993 when Rhino Records came out with D.I.Y. Do It Yourself, a nine-volume aural history of punk. They came tours by the Ramones, the Stranglers, and Television.7 Believe it or not. Punk has been and still is surviving mostly on minor labels.